U.S. Progress Toward Sustainability in Higher Education

This chapter appeared originally in the book Stumbling Toward Sustainability, John C. Dernbach ed., published by the Environmental Law Institute © 2002. All rights reserved Environmental Law Institute.

by Wynn Calder and Richard M. Clugston

(return to Assessing Developments in the United States)

Footnotes for Assessing Developments in the United States

(45) This assertion is backed by data from the Higher Education Research Institute, which looks at freshman trends. See http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/cirp.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). A 2000 survey of "non-activist" college students in the U.S. by the Institute for Global Ethics, entitled Reaching Out: Broadening College-Student Constituencies for Environmental Protection, looked at the relationship between core values and concerns about the environment, as well as attitudes toward taking action for the environment. See http://www.globalethics.org/edu/reachout.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(46) Foundation support to universities for sustainability initiatives or to NGOs promoting sustainability in higher education has been modest over the years compared, for example, with support for "environmental education" at the primary and secondary levels. See Class of 2000 Report, supra note 34, at 9.
(47) See the sub-section Support from Government, NGOs and Higher Education Associations, below. For a brief commentary on international progress over the last ten years, see Mary Paden, "Education for Sustainable Development: Small is Bountiful," Human Nature (Environmental Education and Communication (GreenCOM) Project Dec. 2000).
(48) There are just over 4,100 accredited colleges and universities in the U.S. today: approximately 58% private, 42% public; and 57% 4-year, 43% 2-year.
(49) Public and private, 4-year and 2-year, large and small institutions are implementing changes in this direction, but there is some evidence of differences between these groups. For example, a 2001 survey of higher education institutions in the U.S. shows that in virtually every category 4-year institutions outperform 2-year institutions in terms of commitment to sustainability and the environment. See National Wildlife Federation's Campus Ecology Program, State of the Campus Environment: A National Report Card on Environmental Performance and Sustainability in Higher Education 4 (2001) [hereinafter State of the Campus Environment]. See note 52 for a description of the survey. In another survey, Robert Taylor conducted a content analysis of 390 randomly selected U.S. university websites and found that the most environmentally committed universities appeared to be large, public, Northeastern schools. See Robert W. Taylor, "Environmental Sustainability in Higher Education: A Survey Analysis," The Declaration, 3(2), (Sept. 1999). See also note 67.
(50) NWF's survey shows that more than half of "campus environmental initiatives" were started within the previous five years. See State of the Campus Environment, at 24.
(51) For lack of space, we will fail to mention numerous colleges and universities engaged in important efforts in HESD. While we believe that many of the examples referenced here stand out, they are primarily illustrative.

CURRICULUM
(52) Second Nature, a nonprofit organization that promotes the transformation to sustainability in higher and secondary education, supports a website with over 500 course syllabi and projects pertaining to sustainability. See www.secondnature.org (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). See also Greening the College Curriculum (Jonathan Collett & Stephen Karakashian eds., 1996), for thoughtful essays on incorporating sustainability into the major disciplines; C.A. Bowers, Educating for an Ecologically Sustainable Future (1995).
(53) Douglas O'Reilly et al., Environmental Studies: 2000 (Environmental Careers Org. 1995).
(54) State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 13. The survey also found that private colleges are four times as likely as public colleges to require most students to take a course on the environment (p.15). This was a web-based survey, distributed in three separate modules to presidents, provosts and chiefs of facilities or plant operations at over 3,900 colleges and universities. Questions covered the following topics: goals and policies, curriculum integration, environmental literacy, transportation, energy use and conservation, purchasing and recycling. There were a total of 1,116 responses from 471 presidents (or executive officers), 320 provosts (or academic officers) and 325 chief of facilities. A total of 891 institutions responded (majority public and 4-year). Data was collected from one respondent at 689 schools; two respondents at 183 schools; and all three respondents from 19 schools. See http://www.nwf.org/campusecology/stateofthecampusenvironment/index.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). A 2002 review of the NWF survey identifies three shortcomings: concerns about the sample's statistical significance (see note 46); potential overestimation of progress; and questionable choices of indicators and metrics. See Harold Glasser, "Murky Grades on Campus Sustainability," Trusteeship, The Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, March/April 2002, at 34-35.
(55) Id. at 15.
(56) See Peter Blaze Corcoran, "The Florida Gulf Coast University Colloquium: A Graduation Requirement in Sustainability," in Communicating Sustainability, supra note 19, at 87.
(57) Debra Rowe, "Environmental Literacy and Sustainability as Core Degree Requirements: Success Stories and Models," in Greening of the Campus IV, supra note 35 (abstract).
(58) For more information about this requirement, see http://onestop.umn.edu/registrar/libed/index.html#THEMES (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(59) State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 13. For an assessment of U.S. institutions' progress toward "problem-focused environmental study," see Edward J. Kormondy & Peter Blaze Corcoran, Environmental Education: Academia's Response (North American Ass'n for Envtl. Educ. 1997), at 53 and 65. In this study, a 1994-95 survey of 122 universities with environmental programs (including environmental sciences, environmental studies and environmental education) revealed that the overwhelming majority of these programs were experiencing steady increases in enrollments, and that students were both following their passion for environmental protection and seeking professional and marketable skills.
(60) The College of the Atlantic academic program. See http://www.coa.edu/ACADEMICPROGRAM/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(61) For more information on Ball State's clustered minors program, see http://www.bsu.edu/cluster/index.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Also of note, Western Michigan University's Environmental Studies department is striving to teach systems and integrated thinking in the context of the sustainability challenge. See http://www.wmich.edu/environmental-studies/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Also, "Environmental Studies and Awareness" is one of six "peaks of excellence" at Middlebury College, whose Program in Environmental Studies integrates the natural sciences, social sciences and humanities/literature, and emphasizes student internships to apply theory in practice in the community and surrounding region. See http://www.middlebury.edu/~es/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). There are many other excellent examples of new and innovative programs.
(62) See http://www.yale.edu/forestry/about/index.html. The University of Michigan School of Natural Resources and Environment is "dedicated to the protection of the earth's resources and the achievement of a sustainable society." See http://www.snre.umich.edu/.
(63) See http://www.heller.brandeis.edu/sid/.
(64) Furthermore, the survey indicates a "disconnect" between what business leaders are requesting regarding sustainability training for MBA graduates and what business schools are in fact delivering. Beyond Grey Pinstripes 2001 is a joint project of The Aspen Institute Initiative for Social Innovation through Business and World Resources Institute. It is the third one conducted since 1998. See http://www.beyondgreypinstripes.org (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(65) For more information on Kenan-Flagler Business School, see http://www.bschool.unc.edu/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Also of note, the Wharton School established the Zicklin Center for Business Ethics Research in 1997; and the University of Michigan Business School and the School of Natural Resources and Environment offer a joint-degree, three year Corporate Environmental Management Program. See http://www.umich.edu/~cemp/index.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Jonathan Lash, president of the World Resources Institute, claims that about eight business schools in the U.S. are hiring or have hired professors to teach and research in the area of sustainable enterprise.
(66) See, e.g., Vermont Law School's Environmental Law Center, whose mission is "to educate for stewardship and an understanding of underlying environmental issues and values" (see http://www.vermontlaw.edu/elc/index.cfm, last visited Mar. 30, 2002); and New York University Center for Environmental & Land Use Law (see http://www.nyu.edu/pages/elc/index.html, last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Also, environmental justice courses are taught on many law school campuses. See, e.g., a description of the Thurgood Marshall School of Law Environmental Justice Clinic, available at http://www.tsulaw.edu/environ/environ.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(67) See John Dernbach and the Widener University Law School Seminar on Law and Sustainability, "U.S. Adherence to its Agenda 21 Commitments: A Five-Year Review," 27 ELR 10504 (Oct. 1997).
(68) For more information on the Center on Sustainable Growth, see http://www.law.gwu.edu/csrg/default.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(69) Medical education has also shown little interest in embracing environmental responsibility or sustainable development. One notable effort, the Consortium for Environmental Education in Medicine (CEEM), was established by the Massachusetts Medical Society, Physicians for Social Responsibility and Second Nature in May 1994. It provides resources for teaching and incorporating environment and health perspectives into undergraduate and graduate medical education. See http://www.cehn.org/cehn/resourceguide/ceem.html .

RESEARCH
(70) See http://www.istd.gatech.edu/default.asp?object=Project (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(71) See www.ecdm.gatech.edu/research.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(72) See Jean-Lou Chameau, "Changing a Mind-Set, Not Just a Problem-Set: Sustainable Development in Colleges of Engineering," presentation at 1999 Engineering Deans Institute, American Society for Engineering Education, Ethics in Technology and Social Responsibilities, available at http://www.cce.utk.edu/lesson.htm [hereinafter Changing a Mind-Set]. Several other engineering programs supported multi-disciplinary research and curriculum development initiatives in sustainability by the mid-1990s. For example, MIT engineering and Sloan School of Management faculty work on sustainability in business and industry. UC-Berkeley's Consortium on Green Design and Manufacturing encourages multidisciplinary research and education on environmental management and pollution in critical industries. Notably, campuses with more than 4,000 students and public institutions are more likely than smaller and/or private institutions to house an environmental research institute. See State of the Campus Environment, at 17.
(73) Such centers include the Laboratory for Sustainable Solutions (LSS) at the University of South Carolina (USC). Launched in 1997, the stated goal of LSS is to "bring awareness and understanding of industrial ecology and sustainability concepts to the forefront in South Carolina." See http://www.me.sc.edu/research/lss (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Similarly, the University of Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems (CSS), launched in 1999, develops life cycle based models and sustainability metrics for industrial systems. The Center is dedicated to interdisciplinary, multi-objective and multi-stakeholder participation. See http://css.snre.umich.edu/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(74) See Robert W. Kates et al., "Sustainability Science," 292 <BI>Sci. 641 (Apr. 27, 2001). See also National Research Council, Our Common Journey: A Transition Toward Sustainability (1999).
(75) This initiative is discussed in more detail below in the sub-section Outreach and Service.

FACULTY AND STAFF HIRING, DEVELOPMENT AND REWARDS
(76) In 2002, the University of Vermont's School of Natural Resources sought a tenure-track scholar to specialize in the economic aspects of environmental sustainability. This faculty member is expected to develop a program of research and scholarship focused on Economics of Environmental Sustainability. Santa Clara University (Santa Clara, California) recently hired an ecological archaeologist to work half time in Environmental Studies and half-time in Anthropology, and a political ecologist to work in the Political Science and Environmental Studies departments. See Richard M. Clugston & Wynn Calder, "Critical Dimensions of Sustainability in Higher Education," in Sustainability and University Life, supra note 4, at 40.
(77) State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 17.
(78) According to one young scholar writing for The Chronicle of Higher Education, tenure committees "view public service as a distraction, at best irrelevant to decisions about promotion and at worst a negative sign about a faculty member's commitment to scholarship." See Paul Sabin, "Academe Subverts Young Scholars' Civic Orientation," Chron. Higher Educ., Feb. 8, 2002, at B24.
(79) For a thorough history and description of the Pondersa Project, see Geoffrey Chase, Faculty Development for Environmental Sustainability in Higher Education (1999).
(80) Changing a Mind-Set, supra note 65.

OPERATIONS
(81) In a 2000 study of 50 North American universities with Environmental Management Systems, Herremans and Allwright attempted to determine "What drives good performance?" The study found that those institutions most likely to be successful had high-level administrative support and long-range objectives. Herremans and Allwright conclude that "the current state of EMS at North American universities is a patchwork of independent, autonomous functions (recycling departments, facility services, plant maintenance, etc.), that are not well coordinated, nor are they working towards a common goal." See I. Herremans & D.E. Allwright," Environmental Management systems at North American Universities: What Drives Good Performance?", 1 Int'l J. of Sustainability in Higher Educ. 168 (2000).
(82) D.J. Eagan & J. Keniry, National Wildlife Federation's Campus Ecology Progam, Green Investment, Green Return: How Practical Conservation Projects Save Millions on America's Campuses (1998). Aside from the potential financial benefits of such initiatives, a practical and moral justification stems from the fact that universities and colleges house millions of students, and the average campus generates vast amounts of waste per year, consumes millions of kilowatt hours of electricity and uses millions of gallons of water.
(83) 62% of campuses surveyed recycle or compost some solid waste, and 17% reported a solid waste recycling rate of 40% or more. State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 39-40, 43.
(84) Id. at 53.
(85) Id. at 64-65.
(86) A 2001 review of nearly 800 campus environmental assessments (in the U.S. and abroad) performed between 1989 and 2001 concluded that nearly all projects have suffered from poor intra- and inter-institutional coordination and insufficient resources, and that no accepted guidelines have been established for conducting quality assessments. This study, completed in early 2002, has made available a database of extant campus environmental assessments; an evaluation of current best practices in each assessment dimension; and a set of guidelines for performing "exemplary" assessments. See Harold Glasser & Andrew Nixon, Western Michigan University, A Comprehensive Review of Campus Sustainability Assessments (2001).
(87) Aside from various websites and publications that feature current campus greening initiatives, two notable books on the subject are Julian Keniry, Ecodemia: Campus Environmental Stewardship at the Turn of the 21st Century (1995) [hereinafter Ecodemia], with case studies and resources for greening campus operations, and Sarah Hammond Creighton, Greening the Ivory Tower: Improving the Environmental Track Record of Universities, Colleges, and Other Institutions (1998).
(88) Most of this work has been pioneered by Walter Simpson, Energy Officer at UB. For more information on UB's energy saving policies and other environmental practices, see http://wings.buffalo.edu/ubgreen/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(89) See http://www.tufts.edu/tie/tci/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Oberlin College (Oberlin, Ohio) has a 2020 Project, which will produce a plan that would enable Oberlin to become "climate neutral" by the year 2020. The Oberlin plan includes thorough audits of the school's energy use and greenhouse gas emissions and the development of scenarios to reduce and potentially eliminate campus greenhouse gas emissions. See http://www.oberlin.edu/~envs/2020proj/home.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Also of note, Lewis & Clark (Portland, Oregon) students agreed in early 2002 to pay $17,000 in student fees to become the first college in the U.S. to meet the Kyoto protocol.
(90) See Curriculum sub-section hereinabove.
(91) See http://www.middlebury.edu/~enviroc/gbprinciples (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(92) See www.northland.edu/info/tour/wmmellc.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(93) See http://www.oberlin.edu/newserv/esc/Default.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(94) Ecodemia, supra note 81, at 6. See also Kevin Lyons, Buying for the Future: Contract Management and the Environmental Challenge (2000). Lyons is director of University Procurement & Contracting at the Rutgers Camden office; the book tells the Rutgers story, with advice on putting environmental contracts into action.
(95) There are efforts underway to create purchasing partnerships, especially among smaller institutions, in order to wield the kind of influence that Rutgers alone can. To date, these have not yet been established.
(96) State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 45.

STUDENT OPPORTUNITIES
(97) For more information on the ACS Environmental Initiative, see http://www.colleges.org/~enviro/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(98) See Alvin Powell & Leith Sharp, "Environmental Internships Changing Harvard University," The Declaration, Dec. 2001, at 4. See also http://www.greencampus.harvard.edu (last visited...) Also of note is the University of Colorado's (Boulder) Student Environmental Center, which coordinates various programs, including an award-winning recycling program. Students are directly involved in planning and implementation in collaboration with facilities staff. The lesson here is that a successful and educational recycling program must have major and sustained student involvement.

OUTREACH AND SERVICE
(99) Service-learning actively engages students in their own educations through experiential learning in course-relevant community contexts. The American Association for Higher Education (AAHE), a major mainstream organization, started a service-learning project in the late 1990's dedicated to the integration of service-learning across the disciplines. The project has generated an 18-volume series designed to provide resources to faculty wishing to explore community-based learning through individual academic disciplines. See http://www.aahe.org/about.htm (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(100) See Eric Pallent, "Allegheny College Is Transforming NW Pennsylvania," The Declaration, Oct. 2000, at 7.
(101) For more information on NJHEPS, see http://www.ramapo.edu/content/units/tas/njheps/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(102) For more information on the Pennsylvania Consortium, see http://www.paconsortium.state.pa.us/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(103) The SUI mini-grant program, which supports research and course development, was noted above under "faculty development." For more information on SUI, see http://www.sc.edu/sustainableu/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Other notable networks and consortia include: the North American Higher Education Network for Sustainability and the Environment (see sub-section Support from Government, NGOs and Higher Education Associations, hereinbelow); and the North American Alliance for Green Education (NAAGE), a non-profit consortium of 11 colleges across the country dedicated to nurturing proactive community members capable of creating a sustainable balance between natural and social ecologies. See http://www.naage.org (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).

INSTITUTIONAL MISSION, STRUCTURE AND PLANNING
(104) State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 25. Many schools also have written policies on a range of environmental issues and about 25% surveyed say they plan to (28).
(105) See Tayor (1999), supra note 47, at 14. His content analysis of 390 randomly selected U.S. university websites revealed that "institutions of higher education in the United States have, for the most part, not accepted the basic principles of environmental sustainability."
(106) The Middlebury Environmental Mission Statement was adopted by the college's trustees in
June 1995.
(107) ULSF, the Talloires Declaration secretariat, does not have accurate information prior to 1994.
(108) About two-thirds of these schools are public.
(109) For a full report as of April 2001, see http://www.bsu.edu/g2 (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). See also Wright, supra note 6.
(110) This observation is based in part on a 2001 survey of U.S. Talloires Declaration signatories. See Michael Shriberg, Sustainability in U.S. Higher Education: Organizational Factors Influencing Campus Environmental Performance and Leadership (doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources & Environment, 2002). See http://sitemaker.umich.edu/snre-student-mshriber/files/shriberg.pdf.
(111) Wright, supra note 6.
(112) See Julia Walton, Tony Alabaster & Kathryn Jones, "Environmental Accountability: Who's Kidding Whom?", 26 Envtl. Mgmt. 525 (2000). See also Julia Walton, "Should Monitoring Be Compulsory within Voluntary Environmental Agreements," 8 Sustainable Dev. 146 (2000). The NWF survey indicates that systems of accountability to environmental performance are present at fewer than 8% of colleges and universities. See State of the Campus Environment, at 33.
(113) See http://www.sustainableunh.unh.edu/index.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(114) Id.
(115) See http://www.sustainable.ufl.edu/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). Other offices of note include Middlebury College's Office of Environmental Affairs, Michigan State University's Office of Campus Sustainability (established in 2000), University of Colorado Boulder's Environmental Center, and Harvard University's Green Campus Initiative (established in 2000). There are a growing number of "sustainability" officer or director positions appearing at universities around the country (ULSF calculated about 10 in 2001). NWF's survey indicates that 51% of schools surveyed have a recycling coordinator, and 36% have an energy conservation coordinator. State of the Campus Environment, supra note 46, at 30.

THE DISCIPLINES AND PROFESSIONS
(116) It should be noted, however, that in 1999 the National Architectural Accrediting Board significantly reduced the emphasis on sustainability in its criteria.
(117) Thomas Gladwin reflects in the Academy of Management Journal that "by disassociating human organization from the biosphere and the full human community, it is possible that our theories have tacitly encouraged organizations to behave in ways that ultimately destroy their natural and social life support systems. The task ahead for management theorists is one of reintegration. Will management scholars reconceive their domain as one of organization-in-full community, both social and ecological?" See Thomas N. Gladwin & James J. Kennelly, "Shifting paradigms for sustainable development: Implications for management theory and research." Academy of Management Review, 20 (4), Oct. '95, at 874, 34p.
(118) Taken largely from Clugston & Calder, supra note 69, at 34.
(119) See Am. Psychologist, May 2000. Also, a recent issue of another APA publication features the greening of psychology. See APA, Monitor on Psychology, Apr. 2001.

SUPPORT FROM GOVERNMENT, NGO'S, AND HIGHER EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS
(120) State and local authorities are primarily responsible for formal education in the U.S.
(121) United States of America Country Profile (December 2001). This is a superficial assessment of progress in the U.S. since Rio on every chapter of Agenda 21. See http://citnet.org/files/USA-WSSDCountryProfileReport.pdf. This report provides brief descriptions of existing programs and projects supported primarily by the Office of Environmental Education. See www.epa.gov/enviroed.
(122) NEEAC includes representatives from primary, secondary and tertiary education, state departments of education, and the business and NGO communities.
(123) See "Report to Congress II," National Environmental Education Advisory Council (September 28, 2000). 2; www.epa.gov/enviroed.
(124) Id., 11.
(125) For information on the George Washington University's "Green University Initiative," see www.gwu.edu/~greenu/. For information on "Tufts CLEAN!," see Creighton (1998), 1-3, supra note 85.
(126) Walter Bickford is directing the project out of the University of Massachusetts, Boston Urban Harbors Institute. See http://www.uhi.umb.edu/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(127) See www.msu.edu/unit/vprgs/RN%20Summer%202000/EPA%20grant.htm. In the area of enforcement, EPA Region I has focused a portion of its efforts since the mid-1990's on colleges and universities after discovering that environmental noncompliance (primarily unsafe storage of hazardous waste) was endemic in this sector. Recently pressure has increased and the fining of prominent institutions has made national news. As of June 2001, EPA had conducted 31 inspections at major colleges and universities. See John Voorhees, "The Changing Environmental Management Scene: Federal Policy Impacts the Private and Public Sectors", 31 ELR 10001, 10094-95 (Jan. 2001).
(128) The Campus Ecology Program assists students, faculty, staff and administrators with the design and implementation of practical conservation projects, providing training and incentives, and helping to document and share lessons learned. It has recently published the higher education survey used extensively in this chapter. See www.nwf.org/campusecology/index.cfm.
(129) Second Nature supports networking among stakeholder groups and faculty/staff development through interactive workshops; facilitates intra- and inter-institutional collaborations; and gathers and disseminates 'best practices' resources. See http://www.secondnature.org (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(130) ULSF is the secretariat for signatories of the Talloires Declaration, publishes case studies, provides sustainability assessment and evaluation, conducts research on HESD in the U.S. and promotes international partnerships and projects to support HESD abroad. See http://www.ulsf.org (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(131) Formerly the Management Institute for Environment and Business, WRI's Sustainable Enterprise Program works to infuse environmental principles throughout the core disciplines at business schools across the U.S. and in Latin America. WRI also sponsors the business school survey cited in the Curriculum sub-section above. See http://www.wri.org/wri/meb/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(132) The National Town Meeting was also sponsored by the Global Environment and Technology Foundation. See http://www.sustainableusa.org/ntm/.
(133) See http://www.ulsf.org/hense/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002). HENSE has supported various HESD projects and continues as an informal network, raising money as needed.
(134) NCSE (formerly the Committee for the National Institute for the Environment) is a non-profit organization, working since 1990 to improve the scientific basis for environmental decision making and supported by nearly 500 academic, scientific, environmental, and business organizations. See http://cnie.org/NCSE/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2002).
(135) AGB managed to get "sustainability" on the short list of priorities for governing boards in 1999 and 2000. However, other concerns took precedence in 2001. AGB also devoted the entire spring 2000 issue of its membership publication, "Priorities," to HESD. See Charles S. Clark, "Campuses Move Toward Sustainability," Priorities (Ass'n of Governing Boards), Spring 2000, at 1-16. The general data on higher education associations is taken from Aldo Morri, Working with Higher Education Organizations for a More Sustainable Future (NWF Campus Ecology Program 2000).